In The Republic, Plato seeks to answer fundamental questions about justice, both at the societal and individual levels. The central inquiry is: Why do men behave justly? Is it due to fear of punishment from society or divine retribution? Do the stronger members of society intimidate the weaker ones into submission in the name of law? Or do people act justly because it is beneficial for them? Plato’s aim is to define justice in a way that demonstrates it is inherently good, regardless of its consequences.
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Defining Justice
Plato’s exploration of justice begins with a psychological approach, rather than one based purely on observed behavior. He seeks to define justice in a way that aligns with human nature.
Political Justice and Its Relation to Individual Justice
Plato’s strategy in The Republic is to first explain societal, or political, justice, and then draw an analogy to individual justice. He argues that a just society consists of harmony among three distinct classes:
- Producers - craftsmen, farmers, artisans, and others responsible for producing goods
- Auxiliaries - warriors who defend the state and uphold the rulers' authority
- Guardians - rulers or philosophers responsible for governing the society
In a just society, the relations between these three classes must be right. Each group must perform its appropriate function and avoid interfering in others' roles. Justice is thus defined as a principle of specialization, where each person fulfills the role to which they are naturally suited.
The Structure of the Soul
At the end of Book 4, Plato attempts to show that individual justice mirrors political justice. He claims that the soul of every individual has a three-part structure, analogous to the three classes of a society. These parts of the soul are:
- Rational part - Seeks after truth and is responsible for philosophical inclinations
- Spirited part - Desires honor and is responsible for feelings of anger and indignation
- Appetitive part - Desires pleasure, particularly money and material possessions
In a just individual, the rational part rules, the spirited part supports the rational part, and the appetitive part submits to the rational part’s guidance. In other words, the soul of a just individual is ordered, with reason taking the lead, just as a just society has rulers leading the community.
Parallels Between the Just Society and the Just Individual
Plato further elaborates that each class in the society corresponds to one part of the soul:
- Producers are dominated by their appetites (desire for money, luxury, and pleasure)
- Warriors are dominated by their spirit (courage and honor)
- Rulers are dominated by their rational faculties (wisdom and knowledge)
The Philosopher-King and the Theory of the Forms
In Books 5 through 7, Plato focuses on the rulers, whom he describes as the philosopher-kings. These individuals are uniquely suited to rule because they are the only ones capable of understanding the Forms, which are abstract, changeless truths. Plato explains the nature of the Forms using several analogies:
- The Allegory of the Sun - The Form of the Good is to the intelligible world what the sun is to the visible world.
- The Allegory of the Line - Describes the different levels of knowledge, from opinion to true knowledge.
- The Allegory of the Cave - Depicts the journey of a philosopher from the shadows of ignorance to the light of knowledge and truth.
According to Plato, the visible world (the world we perceive with our senses) is imperfect and constantly changing, while the intelligible world (the realm of the Forms) is eternal and unchanging. Only those who can understand the Forms can gain true knowledge. The Form of the Good is the highest of these Forms, the source of all other knowledge, truth, and beauty.
Education and the Philosopher’s Journey
Plato argues that the goal of education is not simply to fill the mind with knowledge, but to cultivate a desire for truth. The philosopher, whose soul is most aligned with reason, is the ideal ruler. Through education, they gradually progress from understanding the visible world to comprehending the intelligible world and ultimately the Form of the Good.
Justice and Happiness
Plato compares the philosopher-king to the tyrant, the most unjust type of man. He argues that injustice creates inner turmoil and suffering, while justice leads to harmony and happiness. In Book 9, Plato presents three arguments for why justice is desirable:
- Psychological harmony - A just soul is calm and untroubled, while an unjust soul is tortured by inner conflict.
- The philosopher’s judgment - Only the philosopher has experienced all forms of pleasure and can therefore judge that the pleasures of philosophy are the truest and most lasting.
- True pleasure - Philosophical pleasure, rooted in knowledge and wisdom, is the highest form of pleasure. All other pleasures are merely the cessation of pain.
These arguments suggest that justice is desirable not only for the peace and order it brings, but also because it aligns the individual with the highest forms of truth and happiness.
The Desirability of Justice
Although these arguments highlight the benefits of being just, Plato’s real argument is that justice is good in and of itself because it connects the individual with the ultimate reality of the Forms. By living justly, we imitate the order and harmony of the Forms, particularly the Form of the Good.
Poets and the Role of Art
Plato ends *The Republic* with a surprising turn. Having established justice as the greatest good, he argues that poets should be banned from his ideal city. Poets, he claims, appeal to the basest part of the soul by imitating unjust emotions. By encouraging audiences to sympathize with ignoble characters, poetry fosters unjust tendencies in real life.
The Myth of Er
In the final part of the work, Plato recounts the Myth of Er, which describes the fate of souls after death. Just souls are rewarded with happiness and peace, while unjust souls are punished. After spending a thousand years in either bliss or torment, each soul must choose its next life, thus continuing the cycle of reincarnation.
