Roman Jakobson's Functions of Language
Roman Jakobson’s model of language functions provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how communication operates within various contexts. Jakobson identified six primary functions of language, each associated with a different factor in the communication process. The referential function focuses on describing the context or the situation being discussed, such as providing factual information or detailing events (e.g., "The autumn leaves have all fallen now"). The poetic function highlights the form and aesthetic qualities of the message itself, often seen in poetry and artistic language, emphasizing how the message is crafted rather than what it conveys (e.g., "The fog comes on little cat feet"). The emotive function reflects the speaker's internal state and emotions, providing insight into their feelings (e.g., "Wow, what a view!"). The conative function aims to directly influence or guide the listener's actions (e.g., "Tom! Come inside and eat!"). The phatic function ensures the communication channel remains open and functional, often used in greetings or small talk (e.g., "Hello?"), and the metalingual function involves discussing or clarifying the language being used, ensuring mutual understanding (e.g., "Do you understand what I’m saying?"). Each function serves a unique purpose in facilitating effective communication.
Face Needs in Communication
In interpersonal communication, face needs play a crucial role in maintaining social harmony. Positive face refers to the need to feel valued, appreciated, and accepted by others. It is essential for building relationships and fostering a sense of belonging. For example, praising someone's work or acknowledging their achievements helps meet their positive face needs. Conversely, negative face concerns the desire for independence and freedom from imposition. It reflects a person's need to make their own choices and avoid undue pressure or intrusion. When making a request, it's important to be aware of this need, as imposing on someone’s autonomy can be seen as a threat to their negative face. Face-threatening acts occur when a request or action challenges either positive or negative face needs, such as demanding something from someone without regard for their feelings or freedom. To mitigate these threats, face-saving acts are employed, including politeness strategies that show respect and consideration for others' face needs, like using indirect language or offering choices.
Coherence and Cohesion in Texts
Effective communication requires both coherence and cohesion to ensure that information is presented logically and is easy to follow. Coherence pertains to the overall clarity and organization of a text, achieved through elements such as formatting (e.g., typography, headings), logical ordering (e.g., chronological sequence, topic sentences), inferencing (e.g., using assumed knowledge and jargon), consistency (e.g., maintaining recurring patterns and consistent verb tenses), and conventions (e.g., appropriate formatting for different text types). On the other hand, cohesion deals with how different parts of the text are linked together to form a unified whole. This includes deixis (references to context, like "now" or "they"), repetition (reinforcing points through repeated words or phrases), substitution (replacing words to avoid redundancy), lexical choice (using related words to tie content), information flow (ordering information by importance), conjunctions (connecting clauses or sentences), ellipses (omitting redundant words), and referencing (using anaphoric or cataphoric references). Together, coherence and cohesion ensure that a text is both logically structured and seamlessly connected, enhancing its readability and effectiveness.
Jakobson’s Functions of Language
| Function | Factor | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Referential Function | Context | Describes a situation, object, or mental state. Focuses on factual aspects of communication. | "The autumn leaves have all fallen now." |
| Poetic Function | Message | Focuses on the form and aesthetic of the message itself. | "The fog comes on little cat feet." |
| Emotive Function | Addresser (Sender) | Expresses the emotions or internal states of the speaker. | "Wow, what a view!" |
| Conative Function | Addressee (Receiver) | Aims to influence or direct the behavior of the receiver. | "Tom! Come inside and eat!" |
| Phatic Function | Contact | Focuses on maintaining and establishing the communication channel. | "Hello?", "Ok?", "Bye" |
| Metalingual Function | Code | Uses language to discuss or clarify language itself. | "Do you understand what I’m saying?" |
Face Needs
| Face Need | Description |
|---|---|
| Positive Face | The need to feel valued, wanted, and appreciated. |
| Negative Face | The desire to be independent and free from imposition. |
| Face-Threatening Act | Requests or actions that might challenge one’s positive or negative face. |
| Face-Saving Act | Politeness strategies used to acknowledge and address face needs. |
| Positive Politeness | Strategies used to create and maintain social harmony by demonstrating empathy and building rapport. |
| Negative Politeness | Strategies used to reduce the imposition placed on the listener, showing deference and respect for their autonomy. |
Coherence
Remember - FLICCC
| Coherence Element | Description |
|---|---|
| F (Formatting) | Graphically stylized elements such as typography, headings, and listing. |
| L (Logical Ordering) | Sequence of topics and information, including chronological order and topic sentences. |
| I (Inferencing) | Assumed knowledge, including jargon. |
| C (Consistency) | Recurrent patterns or consistency in topic sentences and verb tenses. |
| C (Conventions) | Accepted features of different text types, such as letters and recipes. |
| C (Cohesion) | Linking elements within a text to ensure coherence. |
Cohesion
Remember - DR SLICER
| Cohesion Element | Description | Example |
|---|---|---|
| D (Deixis) | References to assumed knowledge, including time and person. | "Now", "I", "They" |
| R (Repetition) | Unifies the text by reinforcing arguments or points through lexical patterning and parallelisms. | "Eat/Eats/Eating", "Easy come, easy go" |
| S (Substitution) | Replacing a word or phrase with another to avoid repetition. | "I want a car, I’ll go buy one!" |
| L (Lexical Choice) | Use of specific words and fields to tie discourse together. | "Sports Cars" = Ferrari, Porsche, McLaren |
| I (Information Flow) | Ordering of information to highlight the most relevant points first. | "It was the exam she aced" |
| C (Conjunctions) | Words used to 'glue' phrases or sentences together, like FANBOYS. | Cause + Effect: "because", "therefore" |
| E (Ellipses) | Removal of redundant words to avoid repetition. | "I wanted to go, but I couldn’t [go]" |
| R (Referencing) | Specific references to entities in the text using anaphoric and cataphoric referencing. | Anaphoric: "Ashley… She", Cataphoric: "She… Ashley" |