The Characteristic Features of Medieval Britain c.1250–c.1500: An Overview
Religion
- Dominance of the Church: The Catholic Church was central to daily life, acting as a major landowner, political force, and moral authority.
- Clergy: Included monks, nuns, priests, and bishops, who were influential in education, healthcare, and administration.
- Pilgrimages and Festivals: Religious activities included pilgrimages to holy sites and participation in religious festivals.
‘Class System’ – People, Lords, Everyone Else
- Feudal System: Society was structured around feudalism, where the king granted land to lords in exchange for military service.
- Hierarchy: The monarch and nobility were at the top, followed by knights, with peasants and serfs at the bottom.
- Roles and Responsibilities: Lords managed estates and administered justice, while peasants worked the land and paid taxes and dues.
Land Ownership
- Manorial System: Land was divided into manors controlled by lords who owned the land and rented it out to peasants.
- Types of Land: Included demesne (land retained by the lord) and common land used by peasants for grazing.
- Inheritance and Tenure: Land was passed down through hereditary systems, often leading to disputes and power struggles.
Food and Famine
- Agriculture: The economy was predominantly agricultural, growing crops like wheat, barley, and oats, and raising livestock such as cattle, sheep, and pigs.
- Diet: Varied by class; the wealthy enjoyed meat and varied foods, while peasants had simpler diets based on bread, porridge, and vegetables.
- Famine: Periodic famines resulted from poor harvests, war, and disease, leading to malnutrition and social unrest.
War and Rebellion
- Conflicts: Frequent wars such as the Hundred Years' War between England and France, and internal conflicts like the Wars of the Roses.
- Rebellions: Peasant revolts, like the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, were driven by harsh conditions, high taxes, and feudal oppression.
- Military Technology: Innovations included the longbow, which revolutionized warfare and provided advantages in battles.
Technology
- Agricultural Innovations: The heavy plow and three-field system improved agricultural productivity.
- Craftsmanship: Skilled craftsmen produced textiles, metalwork, and pottery in towns.
- Building Techniques: Advances were demonstrated in the construction of castles, cathedrals, and other stone buildings.
Homes and Possessions
- Living Conditions: Homes ranged from simple thatched cottages for peasants to grand manor houses and castles for the nobility.
- Possessions: Most people owned few possessions, typically basic furniture, cooking utensils, and tools, while wealthier individuals had more luxurious items and clothing.
- Hygiene and Health: Poor sanitation and limited medical knowledge led to widespread disease and short life expectancies.
Life and Leisure
- Daily Life: Centered around work and survival, dictated by the agricultural calendar.
- Leisure Activities: Included festivals, feasts, fairs, religious observances, and pastimes like archery, music, and dancing.
- Community and Social Life: Life was community-oriented with strong social bonds and communal activities in villages and towns.
Crimes and Criminals in Medieval Britain
Types of Crimes
- Serious Crimes: Known as felonies, including murder, theft over 12 pence, serious bodily harm, and significant damage to possessions.
- Petty Crimes: Known as misdemeanors, including theft under 12 pence, minor bodily harm, debt, and minor property damage.
Differences Between Crimes
- Crimes Against Property: Included theft, burglary, arson, and damage to possessions.
- Crimes Against Person: Included murder, assault, rape, and other forms of physical harm.
- Crimes Against Authority: Included treason, rebellion, and defying the orders of the king or local lords.
Changing Nature of Crimes Through the Medieval Period
- Early Medieval Period: Crimes were often personal and local, involving disputes within communities.
- Later Medieval Period: Increased complexity of society led to more sophisticated crimes like forgery and fraud.
- Impact of Social Changes: Changes in population, urbanization, and economic conditions influenced the types and frequency of crimes.
Reasons for Changing Nature of Crimes
- Economic Factors: Hardship and poverty drove many to commit crimes out of necessity.
- Social Changes: Population growth and urbanization created new opportunities for crime.
- Political Changes: Shifts in power and authority affected definitions and enforcement of crimes.
- Legal Developments: Changes in laws and procedures influenced how crimes were categorized and punished.
Who Were the Criminals and Why Did They Commit Crimes?
- Criminal Demographics: Most criminals were young men from lower social classes.
- Motivations:
- Economic Necessity: Poverty and lack of resources led to theft and other crimes.
- Social Discontent: Unrest and dissatisfaction sometimes resulted in violent actions.
- Opportunism: Some committed crimes for gain without significant risk.
- Personal Grievances: Disputes over land, property, or personal matters often escalated into criminal acts.
Enforcing Law and Order Including Policing and Different Types of Court
The Role of the King
- Ultimate Authority: The king was the supreme authority responsible for law and order.
- Royal Decrees: Issued laws and proclamations to maintain control and administer justice.
- Royal Courts: Established to deal with serious crimes and disputes involving the nobility or large amounts of property.
The Role of the Sheriff
- King’s Representative: Enforced the king’s laws in the shire (county).
- Tax Collection: Responsible for collecting taxes and fines.
- Maintaining Order: Organized the pursuit and arrest of criminals, and ensured the enforcement of court judgments.
- Summoning Juries: Arranged for juries to attend trials and ensured their impartiality.
The Role of Chief Constables
- Local Law Enforcement: Appointed to oversee law enforcement in each hundred (a division of a shire).
- Support to the Sheriff: Assisted the sheriff in maintaining law and order.
- Organizing Watchmen: Managed the activities of watchmen and ensured the security of the local area.
The Role of the Parish Constable
- Community Law Enforcement: Elected by local communities to maintain order in the parish.
- Minor Crimes: Dealt with minor offenses and disputes.
- Assistance in Major Crimes: Helped with the apprehension of serious criminals until higher authorities took over.
The Role of the People
- Tithing: Groups of ten households responsible for each other’s conduct and ensuring members appeared in court.
- Hue and Cry: A community alert system where witnesses to a crime would call for help, and the community was obligated to pursue the criminal.
- Victim’s Onus: Victims of crimes were often responsible for bringing the accused to justice, collecting evidence, and ensuring they appeared in court.
Watchmen
- Night Patrols: Patrolled towns and cities at night to prevent crime and disturbances.
- Arrest Powers: Had the authority to arrest suspicious individuals and bring them before a constable or magistrate.
The Court System
- Royal Courts: Handled serious crimes like murder, treason, and large property disputes. The king’s justices traveled on circuit to hold these courts.
- Justices of the Peace / Quarter Sessions: Local justices appointed by the king to oversee less serious crimes, administrative issues, and local disputes. Met four times a year.
- Manor Courts: Dealt with minor offenses and local disputes within the manor. Presided over by the lord of the manor or his steward.
- Borough Courts: Handled issues within towns and cities, including trade disputes, minor crimes, and local regulations.
- Church Courts: Managed crimes related to moral offenses such as adultery, blasphemy, and heresy, and dealt with clerics who committed crimes.
- Jury System: Panels of local men who decided the guilt or innocence of the accused based on evidence. Used in royal courts and some local courts.
Punishing Offenders
Nature and Use of Fines
- Common Punishment: Fines were a common form of punishment for minor offenses.
- Payment to the King or Local Lord: Offenders paid fines directly to the crown or local lord.
- Revenue Generation: Fines served as a source of revenue for the government and local lords.
- Varied by Offense: The amount of the fine varied depending on the severity of the crime and the offender's ability to pay.
Public Humiliation
- Stocks and Pillories: Offenders were placed in stocks or pillories in public places, subject to ridicule and abuse.
- Whipping Posts: Offenders were tied to posts and whipped in public as corporal punishment.
- Shaming Punishments: Aimed to shame the offender and deter others from similar crimes.
Use of Prisons/Gaols
- Short-term Holding: Prisons primarily held accused persons awaiting trial or punishment, not for long-term sentences.
- Debtors' Prisons: People imprisoned until debts were paid or someone arranged for payment.
- Poor Conditions: Prisons were overcrowded, unsanitary, and harsh.
Execution – Types and Use of
- Hanging: Common method of execution for serious crimes like murder, theft, and treason.
- Beheading: Reserved for nobility and high-profile offenders, seen as more honorable.
- Burning at the Stake: Used for crimes like heresy and witchcraft.
- Drawing and Quartering: Used for high treason, involving hanging, disembowelment, beheading, and dismemberment.
Purpose of Punishing Offenders
- Retribution: Punishment as vengeance for the crime.
- Removal: Removing dangerous individuals from society.
- Rehabilitation: Attempting to reform offenders, though less common in medieval times.
- Deterrence: Discouraging others from committing crimes through harsh punishments.
Frequency of the Death Sentence
- Common for Serious Crimes: Frequent for crimes like murder, theft, and treason.
- Less Common for Minor Offenses: Petty crimes were usually punished by fines, public humiliation, or corporal punishment.
Avoiding the Death Sentence
- Juries' Role: Juries could be lenient or reduce the charge to avoid the death penalty.
- Pardons: The king or local lords could grant pardons to spare offenders from execution.
- Benefit of Clergy: Claiming the right to be tried in church courts for lesser punishments.
- Pregnancy: Women found to be pregnant could be spared execution.
- Military Service: Offenders could sometimes avoid execution by agreeing to serve in the military.
- Approver: Accused individuals could provide evidence against others for a lesser sentence or pardon.