- Territorial disputes: Disputes over territory are often a major cause of war, as states may seek to expand their borders or defend their sovereignty. (Mearsheimer, 2001, p. 31)
Example: Examples of territorial disputes that have led to war include the Falklands War between Argentina and the United Kingdom, the Six-Day War between Israel and its neighbors, and the Russia-Georgia War. - Nationalism and identity: Nationalism and a strong sense of national identity can lead to conflict as states seek to protect and promote their cultural values. (Smith, 2018, p. 75)
Example: Nationalism and identity have been factors in many conflicts, such as the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, the separatist movements in Spain and Belgium, and the ongoing conflict in Tibet.
- Resource scarcity: Competition for resources, such as water, oil, or minerals, can lead to conflict as states seek to secure access to these resources. (Grossman, 2011, p. 119)
Example: Competition for resources has been a factor in many conflicts, including the oil-rich countries of the Middle East, the dispute over the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea, and the conflict in Darfur.
- Economic interests: Economic interests can also contribute to conflict, as states seek to protect and promote their economic interests. (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2016, p. 83)
Example: Economic interests have played a role in conflicts such as the Opium Wars between China and the Western powers, the U.S. invasion of Iraq, and the ongoing trade war between the United States and China.
- Ideological differences: Ideological differences, such as differing political systems or values, can lead to conflict as states seek to spread their ideology or defend against it. (Morgenthau, 1978, p. 97)
Example: Ideological differences have been a factor in conflicts such as the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War.
- Security dilemma: The security dilemma, which refers to the idea that actions taken by one state to increase its own security can have unintended consequences for the security of other states, can contribute to conflict. (Jervis, 1978, p. 167)
Example: The security dilemma has been a factor in conflicts such as the arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War, the ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, and the U.S. invasion of Iraq.
- Balance of power: The balance of power can also be a cause of war, as states may seek to alter the balance of power to their advantage. (Waltz, 1979, p. 12)
Example: The balance of power has played a role in conflicts such as World War I, the Korean War, and the ongoing tensions between China and the United States.
- Domestic politics: Domestic politics can also play a role in the outbreak of war, as leaders may use foreign policy to distract from domestic issues or to bolster their own political support. (Diehl, 1992, p. 193)
Example: Domestic politics have played a role in conflicts such as the U.S. invasion of Iraq, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and the ongoing conflict in Syria.
- Ethnic and religious differences: Ethnic and religious differences can lead to conflict, as states may seek to protect or promote their own group's interests. (Pape, 2003, p. 343)
Example: Ethnic and religious differences have been a factor in conflicts such as the Rwandan genocide, the Bosnian War, and the ongoing conflict in Myanmar.
- Leadership: The leadership of a state can also be a factor in the outbreak of war, as leaders may be more or less willing to use force to pursue their goals. (Nye, 2010, p. 5)
Example: Leadership has been a factor in conflicts such as the Gulf War, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the ongoing conflict in Syria.
- Misperception: Misperception, or the idea that states may misunderstand each other's intentions or capabilities, can contribute to conflict. (Jervis, 1978, p. 167)
Example: Misperception has played a role in conflicts such as the Cuban Missile Crisis, the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, and the ongoing tensions between the United States and North Korea.
- Alliance dynamics: The formation and maintenance of alliances can also be a cause of war, as states may feel obligated to defend their allies or may see an alliance as a threat to their own security. (Goldstein & Pevehouse, 2016, p. 83)
Example: Alliance dynamics have been a factor in conflicts such as World War I, the Korean War, and the ongoing tensions between NATO and Russia.
- Arms races: Arms races, or the competition to build up military capabilities, can contribute to a sense of insecurity and increase the likelihood of conflict. (Waltz, 1979, p. 12)
Example: Arms races have contributed to conflicts such as the Cold War, the ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, and the current arms race in the Middle East.
- Technology: The development and proliferation of new technologies, such as nuclear weapons or cyber capabilities, can also affect the likelihood of war. (Schmitt & Ventre, 2017, p. 1)
Example: The development and proliferation of new technologies have been a factor in conflicts such as the Cold War, the ongoing conflict in Syria, and the tensions between the United States and China.
- Human rights abuses: Human rights abuses and other humanitarian crises can threaten international security and lead to conflict. (Human Rights Watch, 2021)
Example: Human rights abuses have been a factor in conflicts such as the Rwandan genocide, the Bosnian War, and the ongoing conflict in Syria.
- Environmental degradation: Environmental degradation, such as climate change or resource depletion, can lead to conflict as states seek to protect their interests or as populations are displaced by environmental disasters. (Barnett & Adger, 2007, p. 639)
Example: Environmental degradation has played a role in conflicts such as the Darfur conflict, the ongoing conflict in Syria, and the tensions between China and its neighbors over air pollution.
- Asymmetry of power: Asymmetry of power, or the unequal distribution of power among states, can lead to conflict as weaker states seek to balance against stronger states. (Mearsheimer, 2001, p. 31)
Example: Asymmetry of power has been a factor in conflicts such as the Gulf War, the invasion of Afghanistan, and the ongoing conflict in Syria.
- Arms proliferation: The proliferation of weapons, particularly weapons of mass destruction, can increase the likelihood of conflict as states seek to acquire or prevent the acquisition of these weapons. (Nye, 2010, p. 5)
Example: Arms proliferation has played a role in conflicts such as the Gulf War, the ongoing conflict in Syria, and the tensions between North Korea and the United States.
- Terrorism: Terrorism, or the use of violence by non-state actors to achieve political goals, can also be a cause of conflict. (Pape, 2003, p. 343)
Example: Terrorism has been a factor in conflicts such as the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, the ongoing conflict in Syria, and the tensions between India and Pakistan.
- Cyber attacks: Cyber attacks, or the use of cyber means to disrupt critical infrastructure or steal sensitive information, can pose a threat to international security. (Schmitt & Ventre, 2017, p. 1)
Example: Cyber attacks have played a role in conflicts such as the ongoing tensions between the United States and Russia, the conflict between North Korea and South Korea, and the tensions between China and the United States.
References:
1. Barnett, J., & Adger, W. N. (2007). Climate change, human security and violent conflict. Political Geography, 26(6), 639-655.
2. Diehl, P. F. (1992). Cooperative security: An alternative to deterrence? Political Science Quarterly, 107(2), 193-214.
3. Goldstein, J. S., & Pevehouse, J. C. (2016). International relations (11th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
4. Grossman, L. K. (2011). The power transition theory: An assessment. International Studies Review, 13(1), 108-121.
5. Human Rights Watch. (2021). World Report 2021: Events of 2020. Retrieved from https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021
6. Jervis, R. (1978). Cooperation under the security dilemma. World Politics, 30(2), 167-214.
7. Mearsheimer, J. J. (2001). The tragedy of great power politics. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.
8. Morgenthau, H. J. (1978). Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace (5th ed.). New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
9. Nye, J. S. (2010). Nuclear ethics. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
10. Pape, R. A. (2003). The strategic logic of suicide terrorism. American Political Science Review, 97(3), 343-361.
11. Schmitt, M. N., & Ventre, D. (2017). Cybersecurity and cyberwar: What everyone needs to know. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
12. Smith, R. (2018). Global environmental politics (7th ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Waltz, K. N. (1979). Theory of international politics. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
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